Paternal Provisioning versus Mate Seeking in Human Populations

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Footnotes

• Acknowledgments: I would like to thank L. Clarke for help with the data entry and C. D. Ankney, P. Draper, L. Clarke, L. Ellis, W. Pederson, D. Kiefer and P. J. Rushton for useful comments. Errors remain mine.

*(1) One exception to the rule that women seldom hunt large game is known. Among the Agna of the Philippines, hunting groups with only women and children brought back 30% of the large game animals (Goodman, Griffin, Estioko-Griffin, Grove 1985, p. 1204). In this particular tropical environment women successfully hunted deer and pigs, sometimes carrying nursing babies, and did so without affecting their reproductive success. Unlike the men, who frequently stalked their prey or ambushed them from a tree, the women used a drive with dogs (where noise from children and babies would be less of a problem). There are several reasons why this case does not prove that women typically could have supported themselves by hunting alone in the prehistoric environment. Dogs were probably not available then. The rich environment of the Agta facilitates brief hunting excursions, after which women can return to their children. The short distances to the hunting grounds probably explains their observed willingess to carry nursing infants with them on the hunt, and their ability to carry both infants and game back home. Although some hunting is done carrying nursing infants, in other cases the children are left with others at camp. Presumably there are some toddlers too old to be carried and too young to walk far themselves. The Agta do not get most of their food from hunting , and it is not clear that their females' hunting efficiency would have permitted prehistoric women to provision themselves, especially if cooperative child care had not yet emerged. Even if such child care were available, the labor needed for it would have to be subtracted from the labor available for hunting.

*(2) Ember (1978) has disputed the findings that in most hunter-gatherer societies gathering is more important than hunting and that females collect most calories. She finds that in sub-Saharan Africa and the insular Pacific (both predominantly tropical)e.

*(3) Negro women have also been found to be more mesomorphic than white women, but the difference is less than in males (Damon et al. 1962, p. 470). Also, certain Negroids, the Nilotes (l